Resistencia al cambio
La defensa de un sistema de trabajo, que seguramente cumple con los lineamientos del administrador aunque sea en forma parcial (si fuera total nadie encararía un proceso de cambio), no es resistencia al cambio. Por el contrario, debe considerarse más bien como técnicas de supervivencia de los empleados dentro de la Organización. Sólo el administrador puede avalar un cambio de la metodología de trabajo.
O sea que cada episodio de resistencia al cambio es un alerta sobre un problema ya definido y que debe ser contemplado, estudiado y resuelto en base a la teoría de la realidad del administrador. En caso que sea imposible adaptar el sistema a la metodología vigente (por costo o por problemas técnicos) los empleados y los implementadores quedarán sumergidos en una negociación interminable que solamente puede ser concluida con la intervención del líder de la Organización.
Ejemplos de estas reacciones vemos a diario, implementaciones que se prolongan en el tiempo, se empantanan en “detalles menores” que sólo se activan cuando el administrador, alertado por la demora o por el gasto que se está descontrolando, se involucran plenamente en el proceso de diseño. Durante el tiempo que dure la negociación, se produce una lucha de poderes en la cual cada uno hace pesar sus cualidades, como por ejemplo, la experiencia, el cargo, la capacidad de negociación, la predisposición, etc.
Vemos entonces, consultores de grandes firmas que implementan un software de nivel mundial y poseen vasta experiencia en otras empresas y hacen pesar ese poder sobre los usuarios, adaptando la Organización al producto que están vendiendo. Es más, esto se agrava cuando el precio por la implementación ya está fijado, entonces para maximizar los beneficios de la implementación se disminuyen al mínimo los cambios al sistema. Este tipo de implementación es muy riesgosa y bajo esta teoría está muy lejos de asegurar el éxito.
Eficacia de los sistemas de gestión
En el principio del boom informático, el responsable del desarrollo o compra era el departamento de sistemas, quien se especializaba en los aspectos técnicos del mismo. Este departamento alcanzó niveles impensables de poder dentro de la Organización, ya que manejaba la mayoría de los procesos administrativos de la misma.
Con el correr del tiempo y con el derrumbe de la burbuja de compañías tecnológicas, se intentó considerar a los sistemas informáticos como un proyecto más, como cualquier otro proyecto de inversión cuyos valores de rentabilidad deberían calcularse y luego evaluar su comportamiento.
Bajo nuestro punto de vista, ninguna de las dos posturas es la adecuada. Se debe considerar la inversión en tecnología de información como se considera la inversión que se destina al sistema de aseguramiento de calidad. O sea, se debe evaluar el cumplimento de los objetivos del sistema dentro del sistema global que es la Organización y no sólo los aspectos económicos.
Recordemos entonces cuáles son los objetivos de un sistema informático:
El Sistema de Gestión debe estructurar los problemas definidos por el administrador de forma tal que se resuelvan como éste ha dispuesto.
El sistema automatiza las tareas de sus usuarios y orienta sus acciones de acuerdo a un paradigma establecido. Para medir su eficacia entonces debemos tener en cuenta:
- La cantidad de problemas que estructura.
- La incidencia en la conducta de sus usuarios.
- La concordancia de los resultados con las definiciones del administrador.
- La cantidad de intervenciones del administrador sobre un mismo tema, teóricamente ya estructurado.
Bajo estos lineamientos es oportuno citar el estudio de C. Symons donde analiza las mediciones de desempeño:
“La definición del grupo de mediciones que se adoptará es crítica para cualquier iniciativa de medición de rendimiento. Sin embargo, desarrollarlas y publicarlas es sólo el principio. Las mediciones deben:
Tener dueño. Para cada medición, se necesita un responsable para su desempeño. Idealmente es un individuo, en oposición a un departamento o equipo. Mientras más específica sea la pertenencia, existen más probabilidades de éxito.
Tener objetivos. Para ser efectiva, cada medición debe tener su objetivo asociado…
Tener iniciativas. Cada medición debería tener una o más iniciativas asociadas que aumentan la probabilidad de alcanzar o superar los objetivos planteados. Deben existir tareas o programas específicos relacionados con dicha medición.1
Podemos apreciar en este estudio la importancia de la integración entre la medición y la conducción del comportamiento de los involucrados. Por más atractivo y práctico que sea un sistema, si no orienta el accionar de sus usuarios, no cumple con sus objetivos.
Resulta más fácil de medir la eficacia de un sistema si se cuenta con una teoría de la realidad o plan estratégico explícito, donde se detallen los objetivos estratégicos de la Organización. Mediante el mismo se pueden analizar los puntos fuertes y débiles del sistema de gestión.
Cuál es el diseño teórico que asegure el éxito
Para que un sistema sea exitoso debe estar alineado con la teoría de la realidad del administrador y debe estructurar todos los problemas que ya han sido definidos por él.
Si tuviéramos registro de todas las definiciones efectuadas por el administrador en la historia de la organización, tendríamos una base cierta donde basar el diseño del sistema, con el éxito asegurado. Pero, desgraciadamente, esto es impracticable.
El desafío del relevamiento, tanto interno como externo, está en identificar las definiciones fundamentales del administrador a través de las tareas rutinarias que efectúan los subordinados y de los dichos del propio administrador.
No es tarea fácil y puede ser objeto de próximas investigaciones.
Bibliografía
- Oscar Johansen, “El administrador como un definidor”, Publicaciones Editorial Gestión Ltda., Mayo 1998
- N. C. Dragonetti, F. Dalsace y K. Cool, “A Comparative test of the efficiency, focus and learning perspectives of outsourcing”, INSEAD R & D, 2001 www.insead.fr
- Craig Symons con Adam Brown, “Where do metrics come from? A metrics sourcing strategy”, Forrester Research Inc., Diciembre 2004
- Baljit S. Dail y Andrew S. West, “Building stronger IT vendor relationships”, The McKinsey Quarterly, web exclusive, Junio 2005 www.mckinseyquarterly.com
- Stephen J. Dorgan y John J. Dowdy, “When IT Lifts productivity”, London school of economics. The McKinsey Quarterly, 2004 Number 4
- EPICOR, 11 Criteria form selecting the best ERP system replacement, EPICOR Software Corporation. 2004.
- Meagan C. Dietz and Jeffrey J. Elton, “Getting more from intellectual property”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2004 Number 4
- John Seely Brown y John Hagel III, “Flexible IT, better strategy”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2003 Number 4
- Diana Farrell, Terra Terwilliger y Allen P. Webb, “Getting IT spending right this time”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2003 Number 2
- Eric K. Clemons, Sashidhar P. Reddi y Michael C. Row, “The impact of information technology on the organization of economic activity: the “move to the middle” hypothesis”, Journal of management information systems 1993 Vol 10 Nro 2 pp. 9-35
- Susanne Hauschild, Thomas Licht y Wolfram Stein, “Creating a knowledge culture”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2001 Number 1
- David Mark y Eric Monnoyer, “What CEOs really think about IT”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2004 Number 2
- Compilación preparada por Knowledge@Wharton para Microsoft, “Measuring the productivity impact of IT investments: Changing the way companies quantify gains” http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu 2004
- Larry W. Hunter y John J. Lafkas, “Firm evidence of the information age? Information technology work practices, and wages” The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, 1998
- Philipp M. Nattermann, “Best practice ≠ Best strategy”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2000 Number 2
- Robert H. Hayes y Kim B. Clark, “Why some factories are more productive than others”, Harvard business review, 1986
- Hal Sirkin, Karl Dickel, Kathleen Conlon, Barry Saeed, Christophe Duthoit y Danny Dale; “Getting value from enterprise initiatives: a survey of executives”, BCG Report Marzo de 2000
- Scott Buckhout, Edward Frey y Joseph Nemec Jr, “Making ERP succedd: Turning fear into promise”, Booz-Allen & Hamilton 2 quarter 1999 reprint no. 99208
- Marurizio Zollo y Sidney G. Winter, “From organizacional routines to dynamic capabilities”, Department of Strategy & Management INSEAD y Department of management The Wharton School
Resistance to change
The defense of a working system, which will surely meet the guidelines of the manager even partially (if it were full no one would face a change process), there is not resistance to change. On the contrary, should be regarded rather as survival skills of employees within the organization. Only the administrator can endorse a change in the methodology of work. So each episode of resistance to change is a warning about a problem already defined and should be looked at, studied and resolved based on the theory of reality of the administrator. If it is impossible to adapt the system to the existing methodology (for cost or technical problems) employees and implementers will be submerged in an endless negotiation that can only be concluded with the intervention of the leader of the Organization.
We see examples of these reactions daily, implementations that extend over time, are bogged down in "minor details" that are only activated when the manager, alerted by the delay or the expense is out of control, are fully involved in the process design. During the duration of the negotiation, there is a power struggle in which each one brings to bear its qualities such as experience, position, bargaining power, bias, etc..
We then see consultants, large firms that implement a world-class software and have extensive experience in other companies and they weigh that power over the users by adapting the Organization to the product they are selling. Moreover, this is exacerbated by the implementation price is already set, then to maximize the benefits of implementation are reduced to a minimum the system changes. This type of implementation is very risky and under this theory is far from secure success.
Effectiveness of management systems
At the beginning of IT boom, responsible for the development or purchase was the systems department, who specialized in the technical aspects of it. The department reached unimaginable levels of power within the Organization, because it handled most of the administrative processes of the organization.
With the passage of time and with the collapse of the bubble of technology companies, it was tried to consider the systems as a larger project, like any other investment project whose return values should be calculated and then evaluate their behavior.
From our point of view, neither position is adequate. Should consider investing in information technology as it considers investment that goes into quality assurance system. In other words, assess the fulfillment of the objectives of the overall system, which is the organization and not only economic aspects.
Then remember what are the objectives of a computer system: The Management System must structure the problems identified by the administrator so that they are resolved as he has prepared.
The system automates the tasks of their users and guide their actions according to an established paradigm. To measure its effectiveness then we must consider:
With the passage of time and with the collapse of the bubble of technology companies, it was tried to consider the systems as a larger project, like any other investment project whose return values should be calculated and then evaluate their behavior.
From our point of view, neither position is adequate. Should consider investing in information technology as it considers investment that goes into quality assurance system. In other words, assess the fulfillment of the objectives of the overall system, which is the organization and not only economic aspects.
Then remember what are the objectives of a computer system: The Management System must structure the problems identified by the administrator so that they are resolved as he has prepared.
The system automates the tasks of their users and guide their actions according to an established paradigm. To measure its effectiveness then we must consider:
- The amount of problems that structure.
- The impact on the conduct of its users.
- The concordance of results with the definitions of the administrator.
- The number of times the manager on the same topic, and theoretically structured.
Under these guidelines is appropriate to cite the study of C. Symons he analyzes performance metrics:
"The definition of the set of measurements to be adopted is critical to any performance measurement initiative. However, developed and published is only the beginning. Measurements should:
Be owned. For each measurement, we need a person responsible for their performance. Ideally an individual, as opposed to a department or team. The more specific the membership, there are more chances of success.
Have goals. To be effective, each measure must have its associated objective ...
Have initiatives. Each measurement should be associated with one or more initiatives that increase the likelihood of achieving or exceeding goals. There should be specific tasks or programs related to such medición.(2)
We see in this study the importance of integration between measurement and driving behavior of those involved. For more attractive and practical than a system, if it doesn'tdirects the actions of its users, does not meet its objectives.
It is easier to measure the effectiveness of a system if you have a theory of reality or explicit strategic plan, detailing the strategic objectives of the Organization. By the same you can analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the management system.
"The definition of the set of measurements to be adopted is critical to any performance measurement initiative. However, developed and published is only the beginning. Measurements should:
Be owned. For each measurement, we need a person responsible for their performance. Ideally an individual, as opposed to a department or team. The more specific the membership, there are more chances of success.
Have goals. To be effective, each measure must have its associated objective ...
Have initiatives. Each measurement should be associated with one or more initiatives that increase the likelihood of achieving or exceeding goals. There should be specific tasks or programs related to such medición.(2)
We see in this study the importance of integration between measurement and driving behavior of those involved. For more attractive and practical than a system, if it doesn'tdirects the actions of its users, does not meet its objectives.
It is easier to measure the effectiveness of a system if you have a theory of reality or explicit strategic plan, detailing the strategic objectives of the Organization. By the same you can analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the management system.
What is the theoretical design to ensure success
For a system to be successful must be aligned with the theory of the reality of the administrator and to structure all the problems that have already been defined by him.
If we record all the definitions made by the administrator in the history of the organization we would have a certain base which to base the design of the system, with guaranteed success. But unfortunately, this is impractical.
The challenge of the survey, both internally and externally, is to identify the fundamental definitions of the administrator through the routine tasks performed subordinates and those of its own administrator.
It is not easy and may be subject to further research.
If we record all the definitions made by the administrator in the history of the organization we would have a certain base which to base the design of the system, with guaranteed success. But unfortunately, this is impractical.
The challenge of the survey, both internally and externally, is to identify the fundamental definitions of the administrator through the routine tasks performed subordinates and those of its own administrator.
It is not easy and may be subject to further research.
Bibliografía
- Oscar Johansen, “El administrador como un definidor”, Publicaciones Editorial Gestión Ltda., Mayo 1998
- N. C. Dragonetti, F. Dalsace y K. Cool, “A Comparative test of the efficiency, focus and learning perspectives of outsourcing”, INSEAD R & D, 2001 www.insead.fr
- Craig Symons con Adam Brown, “Where do metrics come from? A metrics sourcing strategy”, Forrester Research Inc., Diciembre 2004
- Baljit S. Dail y Andrew S. West, “Building stronger IT vendor relationships”, The McKinsey Quarterly, web exclusive, Junio 2005 www.mckinseyquarterly.com
- Stephen J. Dorgan y John J. Dowdy, “When IT Lifts productivity”, London school of economics. The McKinsey Quarterly, 2004 Number 4
- EPICOR, 11 Criteria form selecting the best ERP system replacement, EPICOR Software Corporation. 2004.
- Meagan C. Dietz and Jeffrey J. Elton, “Getting more from intellectual property”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2004 Number 4
- John Seely Brown y John Hagel III, “Flexible IT, better strategy”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2003 Number 4
- Diana Farrell, Terra Terwilliger y Allen P. Webb, “Getting IT spending right this time”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2003 Number 2
- Eric K. Clemons, Sashidhar P. Reddi y Michael C. Row, “The impact of information technology on the organization of economic activity: the “move to the middle” hypothesis”, Journal of management information systems 1993 Vol 10 Nro 2 pp. 9-35
- Susanne Hauschild, Thomas Licht y Wolfram Stein, “Creating a knowledge culture”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2001 Number 1
- David Mark y Eric Monnoyer, “What CEOs really think about IT”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2004 Number 2
- Compilación preparada por Knowledge@Wharton para Microsoft, “Measuring the productivity impact of IT investments: Changing the way companies quantify gains” http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu 2004
- Larry W. Hunter y John J. Lafkas, “Firm evidence of the information age? Information technology work practices, and wages” The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, 1998
- Philipp M. Nattermann, “Best practice ≠ Best strategy”, The McKinsey Quarterly, 2000 Number 2
- Robert H. Hayes y Kim B. Clark, “Why some factories are more productive than others”, Harvard business review, 1986
- Hal Sirkin, Karl Dickel, Kathleen Conlon, Barry Saeed, Christophe Duthoit y Danny Dale; “Getting value from enterprise initiatives: a survey of executives”, BCG Report Marzo de 2000
- Scott Buckhout, Edward Frey y Joseph Nemec Jr, “Making ERP succedd: Turning fear into promise”, Booz-Allen & Hamilton 2 quarter 1999 reprint no. 99208
- Marurizio Zollo y Sidney G. Winter, “From organizacional routines to dynamic capabilities”, Department of Strategy & Management INSEAD y Department of management The Wharton School
1 Craig Symons con Adam Brown, “Where do metrics come from? A metrics sourcing strategy”, Forrester Research Inc., Diciembre 2004
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